Escherichia coli ( , also known as E. coli ) is Gram-negative , optionally anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacteria of the genus Escherichia commonly found in the gut underneath a warm-blooded organism (endotherms). Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes can cause serious food poisoning to their host, and are sometimes responsible for product withdrawal due to food contamination. Non-hazardous strains are part of the normal intestinal microbiota, and can benefit its host by producing vitamin K 2 , and preventing colonization of the intestines with pathogenic bacteria, having a symbiotic relationship. E. coli is dumped into the environment in the dirt. The bacteria grew massively in fresh dirt under aerobic conditions for 3 days, but the number decreased slowly thereafter.
E. coli and other facultative anaerobes constitute about 0.9% of intestinal microbiota, and fecal-oral transmission is the main route in which a pathogenic strain of bacterial disease causes. Cells can survive outside of the body for a limited time, which makes them a potential indicator organism to test environmental samples for fecal contamination. However, more and more studies are examining the persistent environment E. coli that can last for a long time outside the host.
Bacteria can grow and cultured easily and cheaply in a laboratory setting, and have been studied intensively for over 60 years. E. coli is chemoheterotroph whose chemically determined media should include carbon and energy sources. E. coli is the most studied prokaryotic model organism, and an important species in biotechnology and microbiology, where it functions as a host organism to largely work with recombinant DNA. Under favorable conditions, it takes up to 20 minutes to reproduce.
Video Escherichia coli
Biology and biochemistry
Type and morphology
E. coli is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerob (which makes ATP with aerobic respiration if oxygen is present but is able to switch to anaerobic fermentation or respiration if oxygen is absent) and unorganized bacteria. The cells are usually rod-shaped, and are about 2.0 m in length and 0.25-1.0 m in diameter, with a cell volume of 0.6-0.7 m 3 .
E. coli is stained Gram-negative because the cell wall consists of a thin peptidoglycan layer and an outer membrane. During the coloring process, E. coli takes color from safranin counterstain and pink stain. The outer membrane surrounding the cell wall provides a barrier to certain antibiotics such as E. coli not damaged by penicillin.
Strain that has flagella motile. Flagela has a peritrichous setting. It also attaches and removes intestinal microvilli through adhesion molecules known as intimin.
Metabolism
E. coli can live on a variety of substrates and use mixed acid fermentation under anaerobic conditions, producing lactate, succinate, ethanol, acetate and carbon dioxide. Since many pathways in the fermentation of the acid mixture produce hydrogen gas, this path requires a low level of hydrogen, as it does when E. coli lives together with a hydrogen-consuming organism, such as methanogen or sulphate reducing bacteria.
Cultural growth
The optimal growth of E. coli occurs at 37 ° C (98.6 ° F), but some laboratory strains may reproduce at temperatures up to 49 ° C (120 ° F) ). E. coli grows in specified laboratory media, such as lysogeny broth, or any medium containing glucose, ammonium phosphate, monobas, sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate, potassium phosphate, welded, and water. Growth may be driven by aerobic or anaerobic respiration, using a variety of redox pairs, including the oxidation of pyruvic acid, formic acid, hydrogen, and amino acids, and substrate reductions such as oxygen, nitrate, fumarate, dimethyl sulfoxide, and trimethylamine N-oxide. E. coli is classified as facultative anaerob. It uses oxygen when it is present and available. However, it can continue to grow in the absence of oxygen using anaerobic fermentation or respiration. The ability to continue to grow in the absence of oxygen is a benefit to bacteria because their survival is increasing in an environment where water dominates.
Cell Cycle
The cell cycle of bacteria is divided into three stages. Period B occurs between completed cell division and early DNA replication. Period C includes the time needed to replicate the chromosome DNA. Period D refers to the stage between the conclusions of DNA replication and the end of cell division. The doubling of E. coli is higher when more nutrients are available. However, the length of the C and D periods does not change, even when the doubling time becomes less than the number of periods C and D. At the fastest growth rate, replication begins before the previous replication cycle is complete, resulting in multiple fork replication along the DNA and overlapping cell cycles.
Genetic Adaptation
E. coli and related bacteria have the ability to transfer DNA through bacterial conjugation or transduction, allowing the genetic material to spread horizontally through the existing population. The transduction process, which uses a bacterial virus called bakteriofag, is where the spread of a gene encoding Shiga toxin from Shigella bacteria to E. coli helps produce E. coli O157: H7, a Shiga strain that produces toxins from E. coli.
Maps Escherichia coli
Diversity
E. coli covers a large population of bacteria that exhibits extremely high levels of genetic and phenotypic diversity. Genome sequencing of a large number of E. coli isolates and associated bacteria indicates that taxonomic reclasification would be desirable. However, this has not been done, largely because of its medical importance, and E. coli remains one of the most diverse bacterial species: only 20% of genes in E. coli type the genome is divided among all strains.
In fact, from an evolutionary standpoint, members of the genus Shigella ( S. dysenteriae , S. flexneri , S. boydii , and S. sonnei ) should be classified as E. coli strain, a phenomenon called an undercover taxa. Similarly, other strains of E. coli (eg K-12 strains commonly used in recombinant DNA work) are quite different so they will be reclassified.
Strains are subgroups within species that have unique characteristics that distinguish them from other strains. These differences are often only detectable at the molecular level; However, they can lead to changes in the physiology or life cycle of bacteria. For example, strains may acquire pathogen capacity, the ability to use a unique carbon source, the ability to take a particular ecological niche, or the ability to resist antimicrobial agents. Strains different from E. coli are often host-specific, making it possible to determine the source of fecal contamination in environmental samples. For example, knowing which E. coli strains present in water samples allows researchers to make assumptions about whether the contamination comes from humans, other mammals, or birds.
Serotypes
The general distribution system of E. coli, but not based on related evolution, is by serotype, based on the main surface antigen (O antigen: part of the lipopolysaccharide layer H: flagellin, capsule antigen K), for example O157: H7). However, it is common to quote only serogroups, namely O-antigen. Currently, about 190 serogroups are known. General laboratory strains have mutations that prevent the formation of O-antigens and thus can not be in-type.
Gene and evolution plasticity
Like all life forms, the new strain of E. coli evolves through the natural biological processes of mutation, gene duplication, and horizontal gene transfer; in particular, 18% of the genome of the MG1655 laboratory strain was obtained horizontally since the difference from Salmonella . E. coli K-12 and E. coli Strain B is the most commonly used variety for laboratory purposes. Some strains develop properties that can be harmful to host animals. This virulent strain usually causes diarrhea attacks that often confine themselves to healthy but often deadly adults to children in developing countries. More malignant strains, such as O157: H7, cause serious illness or death in the elderly, who are very young, or who are immunocompromised.
Genera Escherichia and Salmonella deviated around 102 million years ago (credibility interval: 57-176 mya), which coincided with differences from its host: the first found in mammals. and the last on birds and reptiles. This is followed by the splitting of the Escherichian ancestry into five species ( E. Albertii , E. coli , E. fergusonii , E. hermannii , and E. vulneris ). The last E. coli of ancestors was split between 20 and 30 million years ago.
A long-term evolutionary experiment using E. coli , started by Richard Lenski in 1988, has enabled a direct observation of genome evolution for over 65,000 generations in the laboratory. For example, E. coli typically lacks the ability to grow aerobically with citrate as a carbon source, which is used as a diagnostic criterion that can be used to differentiate E. coli from other bacteria that closely related like Salmonella . In this experiment, one population of E. coli unexpectedly developed the ability to metabolize citrate aerobically, a large evolutionary shift with several advantages of microbial speciation.
Neotype strain
E. coli is a species species of the genus ( Escherichia ) and in turn Escherichia is a type genus of the family Enterobacteriaceae, where the surname is not derived from genus Enterobacter "i" (sic.) "aceae", but from "enterobacterium" "aceae" (non-genus enterobacterium, but an alternative name for enteric bacteria).
The original strain described by Escherich is believed to be lost, consequently a new type of strain (neotype) is chosen as representative: the neotype strain is U5/41 T , also known as DSM 30083, ATCC 11775, and NCTC 9001, which is pathogenic to chicken and has serotype O1: K1: H7. However, in most studies, either O157: H7, K-12 MG1655, or K-12 W3110 are used as representative of E. coli. The type of strain genome has recently been sequenced.
Filogeni E. coli strain
A large number of strains belonging to this species have been isolated and characterized. In addition to the serotype ( supra vide ), they can be classified according to their philosophy, the evolutionary history inferred, as shown below where the species is divided into six groups. In particular the use of whole genome sequences produces highly supported phylogeny. Based on these data, five subspecies of E. coli are distinguished.
The relationship between phylogenetic distances ("associations") and small pathologies, eg serotypes O157: H7, which form clades ("exclusive groups") - group E below - all enterohaemorragic strains (EHEC), but not all EHEC strains are closely related. In fact, four different species of Shigella nest among E. coli ( supra vide ), while E. albertii and E. fergusonii are outside this group. Indeed, all Shigella species are placed in a subspecies of E. coli in a phylogenic study that belongs to a strain type, and for this reason reclassification is suitably difficult. All types of research are commonly used from Group A's E. coli and derived mainly from the Clifton K-12 strain (?? F ?; O16) and to a lesser extent than the strain d'Herelle Bacillus coli (strain B) (O7).
Genomics
The first complete DNA sequence of the E. coli genome (laboratory strain K-12 derivative MG1655) was published in 1997. It is a circular DNA molecule of 4.6 million long base pairs, containing 4288 genes of protein-coding annotated (set to 2584 operons), seven RNA ribosomes (rRNA) operons, and 86 transfers of RNA (tRNA) genes. Although it has been the subject of intensive genetic analysis for about 40 years, a large number of these genes were previously unknown. The coding density was found to be very high, with the mean distance between genes only 118 base pairs. The observed genome contains a large number of transposable genetic elements, recurrent elements, faint nuclei, and bacteriophage remnants.
More than three hundred complete genomes of Escherichia and Shigella species are known. The genome sequence of the strain type E. coli is added to this collection before 2014. This sequence comparison shows an incredible amount of diversity; only about 20% of each genome represents the sequence present in each isolate, while about 80% of each genome may vary among isolates. Each individual genome contains between 4,000 and 5,500 genes, but the number of different genes among all consecutive E. coli (pangenome) exceeds 16,000. This enormous component genome variant has been interpreted to mean that two-thirds of pangenome's E. coli> originates from another species and arrives through a horizontal gene transfer process.
Gene nomenclature
The genes in E. coli are usually named by a 4-letter acronym derived from its function (if known) and italicized. For example, recA is named after its role in the homolog rec ombination plus the letter A. The functionally related genes are named recB , recc , recD etc. Proteins are named with a capital letter acronym, such as RecA, RecB, etc. When the genome of E. coli is sequenced, all genes are numbered (more or less) in sequence to the genome and abbreviated by b numbers, such as b2819 (= recD ). The name "b" was created after Fred B lattner, who led the genome sequence effort. Another numbering system was introduced with another sequence of E. coli strains, W3110, sorted in Japan and hence using numbers started by JW... ( J apanese W 3110), e.g. JW2787 (= recD ). Therefore, recD = b2819 = JW2787. Note, however, that most databases have their own numbering systems, e.g. EcoGene database uses EG10826 for recD . Finally, the ECK number is specifically used for alleles in the MG1655 strain of E. coli K-12. The complete list of genes and synonyms can be obtained from databases such as EcoGene or Uniprot.
Proteomics
Proteome
Several studies have investigated the proteome of E. coli . In 2006, 1.627 (38%) of 4,237 open-reading frames (ORFs) have been identified experimentally. Sequence pair 4,639,221 base Escherichia coliK-12 presented. Of the 4288 encoding genes of an annotated protein, 38 percent had no associated function. Comparisons with five other sequencing microbes indicate the presence of a gene family that is ubiquitous and narrowly distributed; many families of similar genes in E. coli are also proven. The largest family of paralogic proteins contains 80 ABC transporters. The genome as a whole is well organized with respect to the local direction of replication; guanine, oligonucleotides may be related to replication and recombination, and most genes are highly oriented. This genome also contains insertion elements (IS), residual phages, and many other patches of unusual compositions showing genomic plasticity through horizontal transfer.
Interact
The interactome of E. coli has been studied by the purification of affinity and mass spectrometry (AP/MS) and by analyzing the binary interactions between the proteins.
The protein complex . A 2006 study purified 4,339 proteins from a culture of K-12 strains and found a couple that interacted for 2,667 proteins, many of which had unknown functions at the time. A 2009 study found 5,993 interactions between the same protein E. coli , although this data shows little overlap with publication in 2006.
Binary interactions . Rajagopala et al. (2014) has conducted a systematic yeast display of two hybrids with most of the protein E. coli, and found a total of 2,234 protein-protein interactions. The study also integrates genetic interactions and protein structure and mapped 458 interactions in 227 protein complexes.
Normal microbiota
E. coli belongs to a group of bacteria that are informally known as coliforms found in the digestive tract of warm-blooded animals. E. coli usually colonizes the baby's gastrointestinal tract within 40 hours of birth, arriving with food or water or from an individual who handles the child. In the intestine, E. coli obeys the colon mucus. This is the major facultative anaerobe of the human digestive tract. (Facultative Anaerobes are organisms that can grow well in the presence or absence of oxygen.) As long as these bacteria do not obtain the encoding of genetic elements for virulence factors, they remain benign.
Therapeutic use
Nonpathogenic E. coli strain of Nissle 1917, also known as Mutaflor, and E. coli O83: K24: H31 (known as Colinfant) is used as a probiotic agent in medicine, treatment of various gastroenterologic diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease.
Role in disease
Most E. coli strains do not cause disease, but virulent strains can cause gastroenteritis, urinary tract infections, neonatal meningitis, haemorrhagic colitis, and Crohn's disease. Common signs and symptoms include severe stomach cramps, diarrhea, haemorrhagic colitis, vomiting, and sometimes fever. In more rare cases, the virulent strain is also responsible for intestinal necrosis (tissue death) and perforation without developing into hemolytic-uremic syndrome, peritonitis, mastitis, septicemia, and Gram-negative pneumonia. Very young children are more susceptible to developing severe illness, such as haemolytic uremic syndrome, however, healthy individuals of all ages are at risk of severe consequences that may result from being infected with E. coli .
Some strains of E. coli eg O157: H7, can produce Shiga toxin (classified as bioterrorism agent). These toxins cause premature destruction of red blood cells, which then clog the body's filtering system, kidneys, causing hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS). Unlike most E. coli that naturally live in the intestine, Shiga toxins that cause an inflammatory response in intestinal target cells (the lesions released behind the poison are the reasons why bloody diarrhea is a symptom of Shiga toxin producing < i> E.Coli Infection). [In some rare cases (usually in children and the elderly) Shiga produces toxin E. coli infection can cause hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), which can lead to kidney failure and even death. Signs of hemolytic uremic syndrome, including decreased frequency of urination, lethargy, and pale cheeks and inside the lower eyelid. In 25% of HUS patients, a complication of the nervous system occurs, which in turn causes a stroke due to a small clot of blood attached to the capillaries in the brain. This causes the parts of the body that are controlled by this brain region to not function properly. In addition, these strains cause fluid accumulation (because the kidneys do not work), which causes edema around the lungs and legs and arms. Increased fluid buildup especially around the lungs inhibits heart function, leading to an increase in blood pressure.
Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) is one of the leading causes of urinary tract infections. It is part of the normal microbiota in the gut and can be introduced in various ways. Especially for women, wiping direction after defecation (wiping back to front) can cause contamination of feces from urogenital hole. Anal intercourse can also enter these bacteria into the male urethra, and in switching from an anal connection to the vagina, men can also introduce UPEC to the female urogenital system. For more information, see the database at the end of the article or the pathogenicity of UPEC.
In May 2011, one E. coli strain, O104: H4, was the subject of a bacterial outbreak that began in Germany. Certain strains of E. coli are the main causes of foodborne illness. The outbreak begins when some people in Germany are infected with bacterial enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), leading to hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS), a medical emergency requiring immediate treatment. The epidemic is not only about Germany, but also 15 other countries, including areas in North America. On June 30, 2011, the German Federal Bundesinstitut fÃÆ'¼r Risikobewertung (BfR) (Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, federal agency within the German Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection) announced that fenugreek seed from Egypt is likely the cause of the EHEC outbreak.
Incubation period
The time between ingestion of STEC bacteria and pain is called "incubation period". The incubation period is usually 3-4 days after exposure, but may be as short as 1 day or as long as 10 days. Symptoms often start slow with mild abdominal pain or bloody diarrhea that worsens over several days. HUS, if it occurs, develops an average of 7 days after the first symptom, when diarrhea improves.
Treatment
Mainstay of treatment is the assessment of dehydration and replacement of fluids and electrolytes. Giving antibiotics has been shown to shorten the course of disease and duration of enterotoxigenic excretion E. coli (ETEC) in adults in endemic areas and rider diarrhea, although resistance levels to commonly used antibiotics are increasing and generally not recommended. The antibiotics used depend on the pattern of vulnerability in a given geographic area. Currently, the preferred antibiotic is fluoroquinolones or azithromycin, with an emerging role for rifaximin. Oral rifaximine, a semisynthetic rifamycin derivative, is an effective and well-tolerated antibacterial for adult management with non-invasive diarrhea. Rifaximin is significantly more effective than placebo and is no less effective than ciprofloxacin in reducing the duration of diarrhea. While rifaximin is effective in patients with E. coli - dominant diarrhea in travelers, it appears ineffective in patients infected with inflammatory or invasive enteropathogens.
Prevention
ETEC is the type of E. coli that most vaccine development efforts are focused on. The antibodies to LT and the main CF of ETEC provide protection against homologous CFs that produce ETEC, expression of ETEC. Oral inactivation vaccine consisting of toxin antigen and intact cell, namely cholera B recombinant recombinant colonies (rCTB) -WC Ducoral cholera vaccine, has been developed. There are currently no licensed vaccines for ETEC, although some are in various stages of development. In different trials, the rCTB-WC cholera vaccine provides high short-term protection (85-100%). Oral ETEC vaccine candidates consisting of rCTB and inactivated formaldehyde E. coli bacteria express major CF has been shown in clinical trials to be safe, immunogenic, and effective against severe diarrhea in American tourists but not against ETEC diarrhea on young people in Egypt. The modified ETEC vaccine consisting of recombinant Ei coli of the main CF over-expressing strain and more like a hybrid toxoid LT called LCTBA, is undergoing clinical testing.
Other proven prevention methods for transmission E. coli include handwashing and improved sanitation and drinking water, as transmission occurs through contamination of food stools and water supplies. In addition, cooking meat thoroughly and avoiding the consumption of unpasteurized raw drinks, such as juice and milk is another proven method to prevent E.coli. Finally, avoid cross-contamination of equipment and workspaces when preparing food.
Organism model in biological studies
Due to the long history of laboratory culture and ease of manipulation, E. coli plays an important role in modern biological engineering and industrial microbiology. The work of Stanley Norman Cohen and Herbert Boyer at E. coli , uses plasmids and restriction enzymes to make recombinant DNA, the basis of biotechnology.
E. coli is a highly versatile host for the production of heterologous proteins, and various protein expression systems have been developed that allow the production of recombinant proteins in E. coli. Researchers can introduce genes into microbes using plasmids that allow high-level protein expression, and they can be mass-produced in industrial fermentation. One of the first useful applications of recombinant DNA technology is the manipulation of E. coli to produce human insulin.
Many proteins previously considered difficult or impossible to express in E. coli in folded form have been successfully expressed in E. coli . For example, proteins with double disulfide bonds may be produced in the periplasmic chamber or in a mutant cytoplasm provided sufficient oxidation to allow disulfide bonds to form, while proteins requiring post-translational modification such as glycosylation for stability or function have been expressed using an N-linked glycosylation Campylobacter jejuni engineered into E. coli .
Modified cell E. coli have been used in the development of vaccines, bioremediation, biofuel production, lighting, and the production of immobilized enzymes.
The K-12 strain is a mutant form of E-coli that expresses excessive Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) enzymes. Mutations arise because of defects in genes that constantly encode enzymes. Genes that produce products without inhibition are said to have constitutive activity. This particular mutant form is used to isolate and purify the enzyme mentioned earlier.
The OP50 strain of Escherichia coli is used for cultural preservation of Caenorhabditis elegans .
The JM109 strain is an E-coli mutant form that lacks recA and endA developed by Promega. Strain can be used for blue/white screening when cells carry episome fertility factors The lack of recA decreases the likelihood of undesirable restriction of the attractive DNA and the lack of endA inhibiting plasmid DNA decomposition. Thus, JM109 is useful for cloning and expression systems.
Model organism
E. coli is often used as a model organism in microbiological studies. Cultivated strains (eg E. coli K12) adapt well in laboratory environments, and, unlike wild-type strains, have lost the ability to thrive in the gut. Many laboratory strains lose their ability to form biofilms. These features protect wild-type strains from antibodies and other chemical attacks, but require large expenditures of energy and material resources.
In 1946, Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum first described the phenomenon known as bacterial conjugation using E. coli as a model bacterium, and remains the main model for studying conjugation. E. coli is an integral part of the first experiment to understand the genetic phage, and early researchers, such as Seymour Benzer, used E. coli and phage T4 to understand the topography of gene structures. Prior to Benzer's research, it was not known whether the gene was a linear structure, or whether it had a branching pattern.
E. coli is one of the first organisms whose genome is sequenced; the complete genome E. coli K12 was published by Science in 1997.
By evaluating the possible combination of nano technology with landscape ecology, complex habitat landscapes can be generated with details at the nanoscale. In such synthetic ecosystems, evolutionary experiments with E. coli have been done to study spatial biophysical adaptations in on-chip island biogeography.
Studies are also under way trying to program E. coli to solve complex mathematical problems, such as the Hamiltonian road problem.
History
In 1885, German-Austrian pediatrician Theodor Escherich discovered these organisms in the stools of healthy individuals. He calls it Bacterium coli commune because it is found in the large intestine. The early classification of prokaryotes placed this in several genera based on their form and motility (at that time the classification of the Ernst Haeckel bacteria in the Monera empire exists).
Coli bacteria is a type of species of the now invalid genus Bacteria when it was revealed that the previous species (" triloculare bacteria ") is missing. After revision of Bacteria, it was reclassified as Bacillus coli by Migula in 1895 and subsequently reclassified in the newly created genus Escherichia, named after the original inventor.
Coli bacteria have been used for biological laboratory experiments, infections can cause hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), characterized by haemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, and renal injury.
See also
References
External links
- E. coli : Protect yourself and your family from occasionally lethal bacteria
- E. coli statistics
- Spinach and E. coli Outbreak - US FDA
- E. coli Outbreak Of Fresh Spinach - US CDC
- Recent research on Escherichia coli at Norwich Research Park
- E. coli gas production from a glucose video demonstration
- E. coli Infection | Causes & amp; Risk Factors
Database
- Bacteria E. coli database interaction
- coliBASE (a subset of the xBASE comparative genomic database)
- EcoGene (genome database and website dedicated to Escherichia coli K-12 subgroup MG1655)
- EcoSal Web resources updated continuously based on ASM publications Classical press Escherichia coli and Salmonella: Cellular and Molecular Biology
- ECODAB Structure of O-antigen that forms the basis of serological classification E. coli
- Coli Genetic Stock Center Strain and genetic information about E. coli K-12
- EcoCyc - curation based on literature of entire genome, and regulation of transcription, transporter, and metabolic path
- PortEco (formerly EcoliHub) - a comprehensive NIH-funded data source for E. coli K-12 and phage, plasmid, and genetic elements move
- EcoliWiki is a PortEco community annotation component
- RegulonDB RegulonDB is a complex regulatory model of transcription initiation or regulatory networking of K-12 E. coli cells.
- Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC)
- 5S rRNA Database Information about the nucleotide sequences of 5S rRNA and their genes
- ACCEPT CLAstification of Cell Genetic Elements
- AlignACE Matrix looking for additional binding sites in E. coli genomic sequence
- ArrayExpress Database of functional genomic experiments
- ASAP Comprehensive genomic information for some enteric bacteria with community annotations
- Gene BioGPS Portal Hub
- BRENDA Comprehensive Information System
- BSGI Structural Genomic Initiative
- Classification of CATH Protein Structure
- CBS Genome Atlas
- Conservation Database CDD
- CIBEX Center for Information Biology, Gene Expression Database
- COG
- Type the strain Escherichia coli in Bac Dive - Biversity Diversity Metadatabase
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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